Quantum Statistical Zero-Knowledge

The quantum analogue of SZK: the class of decision problems that have a quantum statistical zero-knowledge proof. In such a protocol, the verifier is a polynomial-time quantum algorithm, messages are quantum states, and the zero-knowledge condition requires that a quantum polynomial-time simulator can produce a quantum state statistically indistinguishable from the verifier’s view of the interaction.

See the complexity zoo entry here.

Notable problems

• Quantum state distinguishability (QSD): given two quantum circuits $Q_0$ and $Q_1$ of the same size, are their output states on the all-zeros input (a) at least $2/3$ apart in trace distance, or (b) at most $1/3$ apart? QSD is QSZK-complete: Wat02 proves it complete for the honest-verifier class, which equals QSZK — Wat06. This is the quantum analogue of the Statistical Difference problem, which is SZK-complete.

Known relationships

• $\mathbf{SZK}\subseteq \mathbf{QSZK}$: a classical SZK proof system is in particular an honest-verifier quantum one, and the honest-verifier class equals QSZK — Wat06.
• QSZK is closed under complement: $\mathbf{coQSZK}=\mathbf{QSZK}$ — Wat02 for the honest-verifier class, which equals QSZK — Wat06. This mirrors the classical fact that $\mathbf{SZK}$ is closed under complement.
• $\mathbf{QSZK}\subseteq \mathbf{QIP}=\mathbf{PSPACE}$: quantum statistical zero-knowledge is contained in quantum interactive proofs, which equals PSPACE.
• It is open whether $\mathbf{SZK}=\mathbf{QSZK}$ — i.e., whether quantum interaction and witnesses add power to statistical zero-knowledge proofs.

Relevance to cryptography

QSZK is the appropriate complexity class for zero-knowledge proofs that remain secure against quantum verifiers. Key points:

• A protocol in QSZK guarantees zero-knowledge even when the verifier has quantum capabilities and can store quantum information between rounds.
• The QSZK-completeness of QSD means that quantum zero-knowledge proofs are tightly connected to the problem of distinguishing quantum states — a fundamental task in quantum information.
• Post-quantum zero-knowledge proof systems should be analyzed in the QSZK model rather than the classical SZK model to ensure security against quantum adversaries.

Participates in

Builds on Quantum Statistical Zero-Knowledge

• QSZK ⊆ QIP

Produces Quantum Statistical Zero-Knowledge

• SZK ⊆ QSZK